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Home » Chapter 12: Tobacco Products » InDepth12A: Health warnings

InDepth 12A: Health warnings

In this section:

12A.0 Introduction and rationale for health warnings
12A.1 History of health warnings in Australia
12A.2 Health warnings used in other countries
12A.3 Evidence about the effects of health warnings
12A.4 What makes an effective health warning?
12A.5 What has been the impact of pictorial health warnings in Australia?
12A.6 World Health Organization recommendations on health warnings
12A.7 Public support for health warnings
12A.8 Future directions for warnings

Home
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- Forthcoming updates to Tobacco in Australia: Facts & issues
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1 Trends in the prevalence of smoking
- 1.1 A brief history of tobacco smoking in Australia
- 1.2 Overview of major Australian data sets
- 1.3 Prevalence of smoking—adults
- 1.4 Prevalence of smoking—young adults
- 1.5 Prevalence of smoking—middle-aged and older adults
- 1.6 Prevalence of smoking—teenagers
- 1.7 Trends in the prevalence of smoking by socio-economic status
- 1.8 Trends in prevalence of smoking by country of birth
- 1.9 Prevalence of tobacco use among Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders
- 1.10 Prevalence of smoking in other high-risk sub-groups of the population
- 1.11 Prevalence of smoking among health professionals
- 1.12 Prevalence of use of different types of tobacco product
- 1.13 Smoking by Australian states and territories
Chapter 2 Trends in tobacco consumption
- 2.0 Introduction
- 2.1 Production and trade data as a basis for estimating tobacco consumption
- 2.2 Dutiable tobacco products as an estimate of tobacco consumption
- 2.3 Self-reported measures of tobacco consumption
- 2.4 Expenditure on tobacco products
- 2.5 Industry sales figures as estimates for consumption
- 2.6 Comparisons of quality and results using various estimates of tobacco consumption in Australia
- 2.7 Per capita consumption in Australia compared with other countries
- 2.8 Tobacco consumption not captured in government or industry figures
- 2.9 Estimates of total tobacco consumption in Australia
- 2.10 Factors driving changes in tobacco consumption
Chapter 3 The health effects of active smoking
- 3.0 Introduction
- 3.1 Smoking and cardiovascular disease
- 3.2 Respiratory diseases (excluding lung cancer)
- 3.3 Smoking and cancer
- 3.4 Lung cancer
- 3.5 Other cancers
- 3.6 Reproductive health
- 3.7 Pregnancy and smoking
- 3.8 Child health and maternal smoking before and after birth
- 3.9 Increased susceptibility to infection in smokers
- 3.10 Eye diseases
- 3.11 Dental diseases
- 3.12 Gastro-intestinal diseases
- 3.13 Musculoskeletal conditions
- 3.14 Skin
- 3.15 The impact of smoking on treatment of disease
- 3.16 Smoking and diabetes
- 3.17 Inflammatory conditions and autoimmune disease
- 3.18 Other conditions with possible links to smoking
- 3.19 Smoking and accidents
- 3.20 Nicotine and carbon monoxide poisoning
- 3.21 Health effects for young people who smoke
- 3.22 Poorer quality of life and loss of function
- 3.23 Smoking, dementia and cognition
- 3.24 Genetic influences on tobacco-caused disease
- 3.25 Smoking compared with or in combination with other pollutants
- 3.26 Health effects of brands of tobacco which claim or imply delivery of lower levels of tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide
- 3.27 Health effects of smoking tobacco in other forms
- 3.28 Health 'benefits' of smoking?
- 3.29 Smoking and body weight
- 3.30 Total burden of death and disease attributable to tobacco by disease category
- 3.31 Morbidity and mortality due to tobacco-caused disease and socio-economic disadvantage
- 3.32 Health effects of smoking other substances
- 3.33 Health effects of chewing tobacco, and of other smokeless tobacco products
- 3.34 Public perceptions of tobacco as a drug, and knowledge and beliefs about the health consequences of smoking
- 3.35 Health and other benefits of quitting
- 3.36 Health effects of occasional (“social”) smoking and cutting down
- 3.37 Chemoprevention of tobacco-related disease
Chapter 4 The health effects of secondhand smoke
- 4.0 Background
- 4.1 What is secondhand smoke?
- 4.2 What is in secondhand smoke?
- 4.3 Thirdhand smoke
- 4.4 Measuring exposure to secondhand smoke
- 4.5 Prevalence of exposure to SHS in the home
- 4.6 Mechanisms of disease
- 4.7 Estimates of morbidity and mortality attributable to secondhand smoke
- 4.8 Cardiovascular disease and secondhand smoke
- 4.9 Lung cancer and secondhand smoke
- 4.10 Cancers of other sites
- 4.11 Effects of secondhand smoke on the respiratory system in adults
- 4.12 Secondhand smoke and increased risk of infectious disease
- 4.13 Secondhand smoke and type 2 diabetes mellitus
- 4.14 Secondhand smoke and mental health
- 4.15 Oral health
- 4.16 Secondhand smoke and pregnancy
- 4.17 Health effects of secondhand smoke for infants and children
- 4.18 Other health effects
- 4.19 Public attitudes to secondhand smoke
- 4.20 Health effects of secondhand smoke on pets
Chapter 5 Influences on the uptake and prevention of smoking
- 5.0 Introduction
- 5.1 Stages in the uptake of smoking
- 5.2 Factors influencing uptake by young people overview
- 5.3 Early biological factors
- 5.4 Adolescence and brain maturation
- 5.5 Temperament, mental health problems and self-concept
- 5.6 Intentions, attitudes and beliefs
- 5.7 The home environment
- 5.8 The smoking behaviour of peers, and peer attitudes and norms
- 5.9 The educational environment
- 5.10 Cultural background
- 5.11 Accessibility of tobacco products to young smokers
- 5.12 Affordability of tobacco products
- 5.13 Products and packaging created to appeal to new users
- 5.14 Smokefree policies
- 5.15 Tobacco advertising and promotion targeted at young people
- 5.16 Smoking in movies, TV and other popular culture media
- 5.16 Smoking in movies, TV and other popular culture media (Copy)
- 5.17 Factors influencing uptake of smoking later in life
- 5.18 Uptake: a concluding note
- 5.19 Prevention: an introductory note
- 5.20 Approaches to youth smoking prevention
- 5.21 Reducing tobacco access and supply
- 5.22 Taxation and pricing of tobacco products
- 5.23 Reducing product appeal
- 5.24 The profound effects of the denormalisation of smoking
- 5.25 Media campaigns and young people
- 5.26 Appropriate responses to the problem of smoking and movies
- 5.27 Family and home-based interventions to reduce smoking uptake
- 5.28 Peer-based approaches
- 5.29 School-based interventions
- 5.30 Harnessing predictors of uptake to prevent smoking
- 5.31 Other drug use
Chapter 6 Addiction
- 6.0 Introduction
- 6.1 Defining nicotine as a drug of addiction
- 6.2 Pharmacokinetics
- 6.3 Mechanism of action
- 6.4 Pharmacological effects
- 6.5 Mood effects
- 6.6 Cognitive effects
- 6.7 Clinical populations
- 6.8 Interactions between tobacco smoke and medications
- 6.9 Predictors of nicotine dependence
- 6.10 Acute effects of nicotine on the body
- 6.11 Tolerance, dependence and withdrawal
- 6.12 Measures of tobacco dependence
- 6.13 Addiction and the adolescent smoker
- 6.14 Smokers’ attitudes to and beliefs about addiction
Chapter 7 Smoking cessation
- 7.0 Introduction
- 7.1 Health and other benefits of quitting
- 7.2 Quitting activity
- 7.3 Theories about smoking and quitting
- 7.4 What finally prompts smokers to attempt to quit?
- 7.5 What we know about how smokers are persuaded to attempt to quit
- 7.6 How smokers go about quitting
- 7.7 Environmental and biopsychosocial factors that influence quitting
- 7.8 How can relapse be prevented?
- 7.9 Increasing smoking cessation at the population level
- 7.10 Role of health professionals and social services
- 7.11 Smoking cessation and pregnancy
- 7.12 Cessation interventions for people with serious health conditions
- 7.13 Cessation assistance: printed self-help materials
- 7.14 Cessation assistance: telephone- and internet-based interventions
- 7.15 Individual and group-based cessation assistance
- 7.16 Pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation
- 7.17 Contingency management/incentives
- 7.18 Alternative therapies and emerging treatments
- 7.19 Interventions tailored for age and/or gender
- 7.20 National policy and progress in encouraging and supporting cessation
- 7.21 Lung cancer screening and biomedical risk assessments
Chapter 8 Tobacco use among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.0 Introductory note
- 8.1 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: social disadvantage, health and smoking—an overview
- 8.2 History of tobacco use among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.3 Prevalence of tobacco use among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.4 Smoking among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and teenagers
- 8.5 Types of tobacco used by and levels of consumption among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.6 Smoking cessation and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.7 Morbidity and mortality caused by smoking among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.8 Economic issues relating to tobacco use among Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander peoples
- 8.9 Attitudes to and beliefs about smoking among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.10 Tobacco action initiatives targeting Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islander peoples
- 8.11 The relationship between tobacco and other drug use in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
- 8.12 The tobacco industry and Indigenous communities
- 8.13 Policies for advancing tobacco control programs among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- 8.14 The effectiveness of population-level tobacco control strategies
- 8.15 The role of health workers and community organisations
Chapter 9 Smoking and social disadvantage
- 9.0 Introduction
- 9.1 Smoking prevalence and exposure to secondhand smoke among priority populations in Australia
- 9.2 Trends over time in smoking among priority populations in Australia
- 9.3 Contribution of smoking to health inequality
- 9.4 The relationship between tobacco smoking and financial stress
- 9.5 Smoking and intergenerational poverty
- 9.6 Tailored and targeted interventions for low socioeconomic groups
- 9.7 Explanations of socio-economic disparities in smoking
- 9.8 Are current strategies to discourage smoking in Australia inequitable?
- 9.9 Are there inequalities in access to and use of treatment for dependence on tobacco-delivered nicotine?
- InDepth 9A Addressing smoking in highly disadvantaged and other priority groups
Chapter 10 The tobacco industry in Australian society
- 10.0 Introduction
- 10.1 The tobacco growing industry
- 10.2 The global tobacco manufacturing industry
- 10.3 The manufacturing and wholesaling industry in Australia - major international companies
- 10.4 Other importers operating in the Australian market
- 10.5 Retailing of tobacco products in Australia
- 10.6 Retail value and volume of the Australian tobacco market
- 10.7 Market share and brand share in Australia
- 10.8 Trends in products and packaging
- 10.9 Brand portfolio strategies in the Australia market
- 10.10 The tobacco industry exposed: tobacco industry document repositories
- 10.11 Corporate responsibility and the birth of good corporate citizenship
- 10.12 The tobacco industry's revised stance on health issues
- 10.13 Industry efforts to discourage smoking
- 10.14 Ethical issues related to tobacco farming and production
- 10.15 The environmental impact of tobacco production
- 10.16 The environmental impact of tobacco use
- 10.17 Public attitudes to the tobacco industry
- 10.18 The investment of public funds in tobacco - the case for divestment
- 10.19 The future of the tobacco industry
- In Depth 10A-Strategies-for-influence
  - 10A.1 Strategies for influence - Overview
  - 10A.2 The arguments
  - 10A.3 Mechanisms of influence—Industry-funded research
  - 10A.4 Mechanisms of influence—undermining public health organisations
  - 10A.5 Mechanisms of influence—mobilising support from the industry and those with shared aims
  - 10A.6 Mechanisms of influence—media relations
  - 10A.7 Mechanisms of influence—political lobbying
  - 10A.8 Mechanisms of influence—participation in regulatory review processes
  - 10A.9 Mechanisms of influence—litigation
Chapter 11 Tobacco advertising and promotion
- 11.0 Background
- 11.1 The merits of banning tobacco advertising
- 11.2 Tobacco industry expenditure on advertising
- 11.3 Commonwealth (national) legislation
- 11.4 State and territory legislation
- 11.5 Tobacco advertising legislation violations
- 11.6 Marketing of tobacco in the age of advertising bans
- 11.7 Promotional events
- 11.8 Trade promotions
- 11.9 Retail promotion and access
- 11.10 Smoking in movies as promotion
- 11.11 Internet promotion
- InDepth 11A: Packaging as promotion: Evidence for and effects of plain packaging
- InDepth 11B: Licensing of tobacco sellers
- Attachment 11.1 TAP Act report to parliament
Chapter 12 Tobacco products
- 12.0 Introduction
- 12.1 Tobacco in cigarettes
- 12.2 Other types of tobacco products
- 12.3 Chemicals and contaminants in tobacco products
- 12.4 Emissions from tobacco products
- 12.5 Measuring emissions and exposure to tobacco products
- 12.6 Additives and flavourings in tobacco products
- 12.7 Menthol
- 12.8 Construction of cigarettes and cigarette filters
- 12.9 Labelling of tobacco products in Australia
- InDepth12A: Health warnings
- InDepth 12B: Regulation to disclose or reduce harm from tobacco products
- InDepth 12C: Reducing the nicotine content of cigarettes
- InDepth 12D: Reduced fire risk (RFR) cigarettes
Chapter 13 The pricing and taxation of tobacco products in Australia
- 13.0 Introduction
- 13.1 Price elasticity of demand for tobacco products
- 13.2 Tobacco taxes in Australia
- 13.3 The price of tobacco products in Australia
- 13.4 The affordability of tobacco products
- 13.5 Impact of price increases on tobacco consumption in Australia
- 13.6 Revenue from tobacco taxes in Australia
- 13.7 Avoidance and evasion of taxes on tobacco products
- 13.8 What is the 'right' level of tobacco taxation
- 13.9 Future directions for reform of tobacco taxes
- 13.10 Arguments against tax increases promoted by the tobacco industry
- 13.11 Are tobacco taxes regressive?
- 13.12 Public opinion about tobacco tax increases
Chapter 14 Social marketing and public education campaigns
- 14.0 Introduction
- 14.1 Mass media public education campaigns: an overview
- 14.2 The role of mass media campaigns within a comprehensive smoking control program
- 14.3 Public education campaigns to discourage smoking: the Australian experience
- 14.4 Examining the effectiveness of public education campaigns
- 14.5 Targeting of public education campaigns and different types of media channels
- 14.6 News media coverage
- Appendix 1 National, State and Territory Contacts
Chapter 15 Smokefree environments
- 15.0 Introduction
- 15.1 Why implement smokefree environments?
- 15.2 Public opinion about smokefree environments
- 15.3 Opposition to and weakening of smokefree environment
- 15.4 Smoking bans in key public areas and environments
- 15.5 Smoking bans in outdoor areas
- 15.6 Smoking bans in the home and car
- 15.7 Legislation to ban smoking in public spaces
- 15.8 Immediate impact of smokefree legislation in improving air quality
- 15.9 Effectiveness of smokefree legislation in reducing exposure to tobacco toxins, improving health, and changing smoking behaviours
Chapter 16 Tobacco litigation in Australia
- 16.0 Introduction
- 16.1Personal injury claims against the tobacco industry
- 16.2 Litigation brought by Australian consumer and regulatory groups against the tobacco industry
- 16.3 Litigation by individuals
- 16.4 Criminal cases against the tobacco industry
- 16.5 Legal cases initiated by tobacco industry
- Appendix 16.1 McCabe
- Appendix 16.2 Australian cases
Chapter 17 The economics of tobacco control
- 17.0 Introduction
- 17.1 Economic terminology and methods
- 17.2 The costs and benefits of smoking to the Australian economy
- 17.3 The economic rationale for intervention in the tobacco market
- 17.4 Economic evaluations of tobacco control interventions
- 17.5 Impact of tobacco control strategies on the Australian economy
- 17.6 Optimal investment in tobacco control
Chapter 18 E-cigarettes and other alternative nicotine products
- 18.0 Introduction
- 18.1 E-cigarette products and the e-cigarette market
- 18.2 Advertising and promotion of e-cigarettes
- 18.3 Prevalence of e-cigarette use
- 18.4 Safety risks and abuse potential of e-cigarettes
- 18.5 Chemicals in e-liquids and e-cigarette aerosols
- 18.6 The health effects of e-cigarette use
- 18.7 Effects of e-cigarette use on smoking
- 18.8 Population-level benefits and harms of increasing e-cigarette use
- 18.9 Influences on the uptake of e-cigarettes
- 18.10 Policies and programs to reduce e-cigarette use among young people and non-smokers
- 18.11 Cessation interventions for e-cigarette users
- 18.12 Public perceptions of the risks and benefits of e-cigarettes
- 18.13 Legal status in Australia
- 18.14 International regulatory overview
- 18.15 Key Australian and international position statements on e-cigarettes, health, and options for regulation
- InDepth 18A: Smokeless tobacco
- InDepth 18B: Heated tobacco products
Chapter 19 The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
- 19.0 Background to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
- 19.1 WHO FCTC Governance Framework
- 19.2 Implications of the WHO FCTC for Australia
- 19.3 WHO FCTC guiding principles and general obligations
- 19.4 Obligations relating to demand reduction for tobacco products
- 19.5 Obligations relating to supply-reduction for tobacco products
- 19.6 Other substantive obligations
- 19.7 Obligations regarding international cooperation and exchange of information and resources
- 19.8 Enforcement of the WHO FCTC
- 19.9 Impact of the WHO FCTC and role in the context of global governance
- 19.10 WHO FCTC in a domestic context: Case study example of Australia’s Tobacco Plain Packaging
Appendix 1 Useful weblinks to tobacco resources
- A1.1 International data repositories
- A1.2 Australian data repositories
- A1.3 International tobacco control strategies
- A1.4 Australian tobacco control strategies and documentation
- A1.5 Major reviews on smoking and health
- A1.6 History of tobacco in Australia
- A1.7 Current Australian legislation
- A1.8 Smoking cessation
- A1.9 Smoking and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
- A1.10 Economic costs of tobacco
- A1.11 Tobacco industry document repositories
- A1.12 Some key peer-review journals
- A1.13 Current international legislation
- A1.14 Policy implementation resources
- A1.15 Understanding the tobacco industry
- A1.16 Public perceptions of tobacco as a drug, and public opinion regarding tobacco control policies

See also our 'InDepth' discussions of:

Tobacco industry—Strategies for influence
Evidence for and effects of plain packaging
Health warnings
Licensing of tobacco sellers

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