A person who regularly uses e-cigarettes will inhale a mixture of chemicals into their lungs. This mixture contains very low concentrations of numerous chemicals that are known to cause cancer. Heavy use means inhaling these chemicals hundreds of times a day, every day, for many years. It is currently unknown whether this extent of exposure is sufficient to cause cancer. However, there are signs of cellular damage and exposure to cancer-causing chemicals in people who use e-cigarettes that have led to concern that e-cigarette use may cause cancer.
Cancer is a condition that often arises 20 years or more after the initiation of tobacco use. Since e-cigarettes are a relatively new product, becoming popular after 2010 (see Section 18.1.1.2), the vast majority of people who use them have not been exposed for this length of time. A comprehensive Australian review has found no prospective studies of sufficient quality on which to assess the risk of cancer for people who use e-cigarettes.1,2
The current lack of epidemiological evidence that vaping causes cancer cannot be taken to mean that e-cigarette use cannot cause cancer. Assessing such risk will take a longer timeframe than is possible given the recent introduction of e-cigarettes to the market.
Studies of the long-term risk of cancer from e-cigarette use are hampered by a number of issues:
- The relatively short period of time that e-cigarettes have been used,
- Many people who use e-cigarettes have a history of smoking (which also causes cancer),
- Rapid changes in the types of e-cigarette devices, their modes of use and e-liquid composition, mean that previous studies may not reflect the risks of contemporary and future e-cigarette use.
Numerous lines of evidence support the biological plausibility that long-term exposure to e-cigarette aerosols could increase the risk of cancer. There are chemicals present at low concentrations in e-cigarette aerosols that are capable of causing cancer (see Section 18.6.4.1).3 Some experiments using laboratory-grown cells show that e-cigarette chemicals can induce damage of the type that is known to lead to cancer (see Section 18.6.4.2). Biological samples from people who use e-cigarette contain evidence of various toxic compounds at levels higher than in non-users (see Sections 18.6.4.2 and 18.6.4.4). People who regularly use e-cigarettes have signs of cellular damage of the same type that is associated with the formation of cancer (see Section 18.6.4.4). On the basis of such evidence, a 2025 qualitative risk assessment from Australia concluded that nicotine-based e-cigarettes are likely to be carcinogenic (cancer causing) to humans who use them and to cause lung cancer and oral cancer4 (see Section 18.6.4.5 below).
18.6.4.1 Chemicals in e-cigarettes that can cause cancer
Numerous carcinogens (chemicals that are known causes of cancer in humans and/or animals) have been found in e-liquids and/or the aerosols from e-cigarettes. Most of these chemicals are present at low levels in e-cigarette emissions; considerably lower than those found in tobacco smoke.5-7 See Section 18.5.5.4 for a discussion of the health concerns of the chemicals found in e-cigarettes.
The carcinogens found in e-cigarettes include benzo[a]pyrene, acrolein, arsenic, benzene, cadmium, formaldehyde, styrene and toluene (see Table 18.5.1)8,9 as well as other toxic metals and N-nitrosamines, which are derived from nicotine.4 Compared with tobacco smoke, e-cigarette emissions have much lower concentrations of most carcinogens.5-7 A study that detected carcinogenic aldehydes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in e-cigarette aerosols found that these chemicals were present at much lower concentrations compared to heated tobacco products and conventional cigarettes. For example, the highest powered of the three e-cigarettes in this study produced 64.5 ng of formaldehyde per puff compared to 156.9 ng from the heated tobacco product and 255.5 ng from the cigarette. Benzo[a]pyrene, a carcinogenic PAH, was detected at only 1.1 pg per puff compared to 25.6 pg from the heated tobacco product and 457 pg from the cigarette (noting that pg refers to picogram, which is 1/1000th of a nanogram and one millionth of a microgram).
A number of studies and major reviews predict that the presence of toxic metals in e-cigarettes may be at a similar or even higher level than in conventional cigarettes, which may pose a risk for cancer.6,10-12
In terms of nicotine exposure, the US Surgeon General’s 2014 report concluded that there is insufficient data to conclude that nicotine causes or contributes to cancer.13 However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer Advisory Group has recommended that nicotine’s potential as a carcinogen be reassessed as a matter of high priority, because of increased population exposure to nicotine from e-cigarettes, and mechanistic data that ‘suggest an association with DNA damage and other pathways of carcinogenesis.’14
18.6.4.2 Laboratory studies on the risk of cancer from e-cigarette exposure
The early events that underlie cancer formation have been studied in laboratories for decades and many forms of cellular damage that lead to cancer are well characterised.15,16 Results from some experiments exposing cells grown in laboratories to e-cigarette chemicals are consistent with promotion of the type of damage that triggers cancer formation. Furthermore, samples of cells from people who use e-cigarettes show these types of damage, as described below.
An extensive risk assessment has reviewed the evidence from laboratory studies to show that many chemicals from e-cigarettes show a variety of key characteristics of carcinogens, as summarised:4
There is considerable evidence that chemicals in e-cigarettes are genotoxic (lead to mutations in DNA that can trigger the start of cancer). DNA adducts (regions of DNA bound to toxic chemicals, where mutations are likely to occur) have been found at elevated levels in tissue samples from people who use e-cigarettes compared to non-users.17,18 DNA damage has been demonstrated in cells exposed to 33 different e-liquids in one study.19 Studies of lung cells grown in the laboratory have shown that exposure to e-cigarette chemicals can lead genotoxicity.20,21 E-liquids or aerosol induced DNA damage in oral cells grown in the laboratory.22 Two major reviews have concluded that e-cigarettes show genotoxicity.23,24
Laboratory experiments also show that e-cigarette exposure can induce a state of oxidative stress, which causes a type of cellular damage that can lead to cancer.21,25 Human oral and lung cells grown in laboratories showed signs of increased oxidative stress when exposed to e-cigarette emissions, or in animals exposed to e-cigarettes.4,25
A 2025 Australian risk assessment also presented evidence for the presence of other key characteristics of carcinogens in cells exposed to e-cigarette chemicals, including induction of chronic inflammation, epigenetic alterations (in which DNA is modified but the sequence remains the same) and alterations to DNA repair mechanisms, among others.4,26,27 In one study, similar types of epigenetic alterations were found in the oral cells of people who use e-cigarettes and who smoke tobacco. These alterations are suspected to be involved in the formation of cancer.28
Treatment of lung cancer cells with e-cigarette chemicals has been shown to increase the rate of an event known as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition29 - considered a first step in the transition to metastasis (the spreading of cancer).
18.6.4.3 Animal studies on the risk of cancer from e-cigarette exposure
Some experimental studies in rodent models of disease indicate the potential of e-cigarette exposure to trigger lung tumour growth, consistent with a risk for cancer in humans.4
Mice exposed to e-cigarette aerosols for 12 weeks sustained DNA damage in lungs, heart, and bladder cells and diminished DNA repair (a situation that can promote the development of cancer) in the lungs.30 After 54 weeks of exposure, nine out of 40 mice developed lung cancer tumours (adenocarcinoma) and 23 developed a precancerous bladder condition (bladder urothelial hyperplasia).31
In one study, three months of exposure to e-cigarette emissions led to mice developing DNA mutation damage in their lungs, bladders and tongues.32 In another study, rats exposed to the chemicals from e-cigarettes over four weeks showed signs of toxicological damage. These effects included oxidative damage and genotoxic damage, which may increase the risk of cancer developing. However, tumour growth in these animals was not reported.33 Another study has demonstrated that e-cigarette exposure resulted in oxidative stress in the lungs and liver in mice.21 Genotoxic effects, however, were not seen in these mice, even after six months of exposure.21
Mice exposed to e-cigarette emissions were more likely to have colorectal adenomas, as seen by increases in polyps in their colons, compared to unexposed mice.34 Among the changes seen with e-cigarette exposure were increased inflammation, DNA damage, and increase of cancer cell markers.34
18.6.4.4 Human studies on the risk of cancer from e-cigarette exposure
18.6.4.4.1 Biomarkers of exposure and damage in people who use e-cigarettes
A biomarker, in the case of e-cigarette use, is a substance in the body that can be measured to indicate exposure to specific chemicals from e-cigarettes. Biomarkers of exposure might be detected in people’s breath, saliva, urine, blood and other samples. Biomarkers may also indicate damage—or the potential for damage—to human systems (called biomarkers of potential damage), and may predict the risk of disease. Biomarkers of e-cigarette exposure and biomarkers of potential harm are described in more detail in Section 18.5.6.
Biomarkers of potential harm:
Biomarkers of potential harm have been found in tissue samples from people who use e-cigarettes. These include DNA adducts, markers of oxidative stress and inflammation discussed above in Section 18.6.4.2. DNA adducts are parts of DNA that are bound to chemicals that can cause mutations known to contribute to cancer formation. An example is acrolein-DNA adducts found at elevated levels in the mouths of people who use e-cigarettes, compared to non-users. These adducts consist of acrolein bound to DNA, which indicates a risk of DNA damage from this carcinogen.18
A systematic review has found substantial evidence for a significant association between e-cigarette use and biomarkers of potential harm that indicate a risk of cancer: oxidative stress, cellular apoptosis, DNA damage, genotoxicity, and tumour growth.35
Biomarkers of exposure:
Biological samples from people who use e-cigarette have been shown to contain biomarkers for various toxic chemicals and of damage at levels higher than for non-users. A potential drawback of these studies is that these chemicals may have entered the body from other sources of pollution that differ between the two groups of people, aside from e-cigarettes.
Biomarkers of exposure to toxic chemicals, including carcinogens, were detected in samples from wave 1 (2013-2014), of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study.36 This is a nationally representative, prospective study from the US. People who exclusively used e-cigarettes had higher levels of biomarkers for the carcinogens NNK (4-(methylnitros-amino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone), lead, cadmium and acrylonitrile than never users. However e-cigarette-only users had lower levels of the carcinogens NNK, cadmium, acrylonitrile and acrolein than those who smoked tobacco.36 A drawback from this study is that the types of e-cigarettes used in 2013-2014 may not be similar to contemporary e-cigarettes. See Section 18.5.6 for more detail about carcinogen biomarkers in people who use e-cigarette.
A longitudinal study of exposure to e-cigarettes found that acrolein biomarkers in urine were significantly higher in e-cigarette users than non-smokers after four to six months of exposure.37 Biomarkers of carcinogens that are associated with bladder cancer have been found in the urine of e-cigarette.38
18.6.4.4.2 Rates of cancer among people who use e-cigarettes
Given the relatively short time frame in which e-cigarette use has been popular, there is insufficient time for the type of studies that are required to provide high-quality estimates of the rates of cancer for people who use e-cigarettes. A major Australian review found that no long-term prospective studies of the kind necessary for predicting the long-term risks of cancer had been completed, as of 2021.1,2 A systematic review from 2025 found some cross-sectional studies and one longitudinal study that addressed the risk of cancer from e-cigarette use. There was no consistent finding of an increased risk in these studies, likely due to the short time period covered,35 compared to the long time period necessary for cancer to form after exposure to chemicals such as from tobacco.
One short-term prospective study has measured self-reported health outcomes for 343 people who used e-cigarettes only, 693 who used tobacco and 319 dual users. There was no significant difference in the rates of cancer diagnosis after two years of follow-up in the study that will run for five years.39 However, the limited time-frame and sample size means this study may not be informative about long-term cancer risk.39
A small number of case reports have documented cancer diagnoses for people who use e-cigarettes, such as lung or oral cancer.40,41
18.6.4.5 Predicting the risk of cancer from e-cigarette use
An extensive qualitative risk assessment published in 2025 concluded that nicotine-based e-cigarettes are likely to be carcinogenic to humans who use them and to cause lung cancer and oral cancer.4 These conclusions were based on evidence that 1) e-cigarettes contain multiple known carcinogens, 2) that cellular and DNA damage seen in in human samples and laboratory grown cells exposed to e-cigarettes is consistent with the mechanisms of cancer development, and 3) animal studies show similar damage, with some developing cancer.4 The conclusions of this report stated:
´Nicotine-based e-cigarettes are likely to be carcinogenic to humans who use them.
E-cigarettes are likely to cause lung cancer and oral cancer.’4
Some studies have used toxicological data to quantitatively predict the risk of cancer from e-cigarette use and to compare this to risks associated with other tobacco products. These studies commonly predict lesser risks of cancer from e-cigarettes than conventional cigarettes, but greater than ambient air. As e-cigarette device types are rapidly evolving, the accuracy of past studies to predict the risks from contemporary and future e-cigarette types is uncertain.
A study from 2023 assessed the cancer risk from numerous chemicals found in e-cigarettes, finding the highest average risk came from chromium, followed by formaldehyde, nickel, acetaldehyde then arsenic. The risks from each of these five substances was above acceptable levels.42
A study from 2020 estimated the risk of cancer from metal contamination in e-cigarette aerosols.11 The authors estimated cancer risk by multiplying the cancer slope factor (an estimate of the risk of cancer) for specific metals by the estimated daily dose of exposure. Their results estimated that chromium and nickel were the leading contributors to cancer risk, with minor contributions from cadmium, lead, and arsenic. They concluded that some e-cigarettes may be significant sources of metal exposures, capable of increasing the risk of cancer.11
A similar study from 2017 compared estimated cancer risks of e-cigarettes to conventional cigarettes, heated tobacco products and nicotine inhalers (used for cessation), taking into account the exposure to 15 different carcinogens.6 The estimated mean lifetime risk of cancer from first and second generation (see Section 18.1.1) e-cigarette use was less than 1% of that estimated for conventional cigarettes, but 10-fold more than that for nicotine inhalation devices used for cessation. However, newer devices with variable power settings were much more varied, with some ranging more closely to the risk from conventional cigarettes. The higher risks were likely associated with the higher levels of carbonyl reaction products such as carcinogenic aldehydes that are generated at higher power levels.
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References
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