Single parents, in particular, single mothers, and their children are one of the most disadvantaged groups in many countries,1 suffering from ill-health and poverty more so than other family structures.2-5 In 2023, single parents with dependent children made up 6.2% of household types in Australia,5 with single female-headed families making up the vast majority (79%) of one parent families.6
9A.8.1 Trends in the prevalence of smoking
The prevalence of smoking in single-parent households is higher than those with two parents, see Table 9A.8.1 and Figure 9A.8.1 below. In the 2022–23 iteration of the Australian National Drug Strategy Household Survey it was found that the daily smoking prevalence was 21.2% in single parent households with dependent children, which was more than three times the prevalence in coupled households with dependent children (6.7%). Single-parent households also reported higher cigarette consumption, with an average of 105 cigarettes smoked per week, compared to an average of 86 cigarettes per week in coupled households with children.7
9A.8.2 Contribution of smoking to health outcomes and social inequality
Smoking not only affects the single parent’s health but also that of the child or children, who are disproportionately exposed to secondhand smoke—see Section 4.17. Single parenthood is associated with younger age, and in 2023, 29.4% of young Australian mothers under the age of 20 smoked during their pregnancy.8 Smoking in pregnancy causes restricted growth and low birthweight in the infant, leading to poor health outcomes through childhood and adult life—see Section 3.7 and Section 3.8. Living in a single-parent home is a significant risk factor for environmental tobacco smoke exposure. A 2020 study found that among people who smoke daily, those in single parent families were approximately 40% less likely to live in smokefree homes than those in non-single parent families.9 Children of lone parents who smoke are also much more likely than children in two-parent families (and children of lone parents who do not smoke) to begin smoking as teenagers,10-12 leading to multiple generations of health and social disadvantage.
9A.8.3 Explanations for higher smoking prevalence
The strong relationship between single motherhood and smoking can likely be partly explained by low socioeconomic status (SES), younger age, living alone,13 poor mental health, higher proportion of friends who smoke, and earlier smoking initiation;14 however, Australian research has also shown that being a single mother is independently associated with a greater likelihood of smoking.14
Explanations for why single parents are less likely to implement smokefree homes include higher stress levels related to lone parenting, conflicts with the former partner making them fearful of being out of dwelling, difficulty coping with the challenges of implementing smokefree rules, social isolation and loneliness.9 Some single parents may also believe that leaving a child unattended or bringing the child outside each time they smoke is worse than exposing them to secondhand smoke in the home. Moreover, without a supportive partner, single parents may be reluctant to insist that friends and family members refrain from smoking in their home. Some single parents may only smoke in the home when their children are away with their shared custody parent. While this may protect against secondhand smoke, it does not prevent exposure to thirdhand smoke.9
9A.8.4 Interventions for reducing smoking
There is very little research examining cessation interventions for lone parents. A 2021 study investigating smoking cessation among South Korean single mothers found that continuous, customised smoking cessation counselling sessions were effective in increasing long-term smoking cessation.15 This study found several short-term factors involved in successful quitting, including: refraining from drinking alcohol, monitoring of exhaled carbon monoxide (CO) levels and becoming pregnant. The authors noted that fifty percent of the single mothers participating in the study were adolescents, who may benefit from tailored approaches. The most important factor, however, was the number of customised smoking cessation counselling sessions received. The study found that as the number of counselling sessions increased, participants were 1.91 times more likely to maintain smoking cessation in the short-term and 9.16 times more likely to maintain smoking cessation in the long-term. The authors suggest that counselling should consider the psychological, social, and economic stress experienced by single mothers and should foster the women’s strengths and social supports. For a discussion of cessation interventions for pregnant women, see Section 7.11.
Improving the mental health and social environment of single mothers could also help reduce their high smoking prevalence.13,14
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References
1. Jun HJ and Acevedo-Garcia D. The effect of single motherhood on smoking by socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity. Social Science & Medicine, 2007; 65(4):653-66. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17493724
2. Graham H. When Life's a Drag: Women, Smoking and Disadvantage, Department of Health, Editor London, UK: HMSO; 1993.
3. Dorsett R and Marsh A, The Health Trap: Poverty, Smoking and Lone Parenthood. London: Policy Studies Institute; 1998.
4. Rahkonen O, Laaksonen M, and Karvonen S. The contribution of lone parenthood and economic difficulties to smoking. Social Science & Medicine, 2005; 61(1):211-6. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15847973
5. Inga Laß, Ferdi Botha, Kyle Peyton, and Roger Wilkins. The Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey: Selected Findings from Waves 1 to 23. Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, The University of Melbourne. 2025. Available from: https://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/5387806/2025-HILDA-Statistical-Report.pdf.
6. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Status of Families. 2025. Available from: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-status-families/latest-release.
7. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Data tables: National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2022–2023 – 10. Priority population groups. Canberra: AIHW. 2024. Available from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/national-drug-strategy-household-survey/data.
8. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australia's mothers and babies. Canberra: AIHW. 2025. Available from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/mothers-babies/australias-mothers-babies.
9. Montreuil A, Wellman RJ, and O'Loughlin JL. Single-parent status and smoke-free home rules among daily smokers. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 2020; 111(2):297-304. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31858438
10. White V and Hayman J. Smoking behaviours of Australian secondary school students in 2002. National Drug Strategy monograph series no. 54. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. 2004. Available from: https://find.slv.vic.gov.au/permalink/61SLV_INST/1dukq3j/alma9912649073607636.
11. White V and Hayman J. Smoking behaviours of Australian secondary students in 2005. National Drug Strategy monograph series no. 59. Canberra: Drug Strategy Branch, Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. 2006. Available from: https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/4271030.
12. Francesconi M, Jenkins SP, and Siedler T. The effect of lone motherhood on the smoking behavior of young adults. Health Economics, 2010; 19(11):1377-84. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20104573
13. Siahpush M, Borland R, and Scollo M. Prevalence and socio-economic correlates of smoking among lone mothers in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 2002; 26(2):132–5. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12054331
14. Siahpush M. Why is lone motherhood so strongly associated with smoking in Australia? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 2004; 28(1):37–42. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15108745/
15. Lee MJ and Lee KS. Maintenance of smoking cessation in Korean single mothers. BMC Womens Health, 2021; 21(1):292. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34372838